Overview of Mammography and its Importance

Overview of Mammography and its Importance Mammography is the radiographic imaging of the breasts. It is a special diagnostic and screening tool of the human breasts. A mammography is done with specific x-ray equipment which is able to find tumors too small to be felt. Mammography examinations ultimate goal is the early detection of breast cancer, typically through detection of characteristics masses and / or micro calcifications. A mammogram is the best radiographic method available for early breasts cancer detection. It is ideal and indispensable for women above the age of 40 years old, for whom the risk of breast cancer is increased. Like x-rays, mammogram uses doses of ionizing radiation to create images but at lower dose amplitude-x-rays (most often around 0.7mSv). Radiologists then analyze the produced images for any abnormalities. A longer wavelength x-rays (typically Mo-K) is normally used for mammogram compared to those used in radiography of bones. Like many other medical tests, mammograms are not 100% accurate. The refore, a regular mammogram scheduling is needed to detect any early breasts changes before any obvious signs or symptoms show up. It is also scientifically proven that mammogram can reduce breast cancer mortality rate by more than a third. Despite its function in early detection of breast cancer, mammography has a false-negative (missed cancer) rate of at least ten percent. This is due to the dense tissue obscuring the cancer and the large overlap of cancer appearance in mammograms with normal tissues appearance. Mammography first started in 1960s. However, modern mammography has only existed since 1969 when the first x-ray unit dedicated to breasts imaging was made available to the public. Such examination as a screening device became standard practice by the year of 1976. Mammography then continues to improve as lower dose of radiation able to detect smaller potential problem earlier. Throughout the years, mammography has made advances to further improve its diagnostic ability. Digital mammography and computer aided detection are two examples of recent advances in the field of mammography. Digital mammography, also known as full field digital mammography (FFDM), is a mammography system in which solid-state detectors that convert x-rays to electrical signals replace the conventional x-ray film. These detectors are similar to those found in digital cameras where electrical signals produced are used to create images of breasts which are then projected on a computer screen or printed on a speci al film similar to conventional mammograms. A digital mammogram is essentially the same as a conventional film screen mammogram. Computer aided detection (CAD) systems help to detect abnormalities by using computer software. A digitized mammographic image that can be obtained either from a digitally acquired mammogram or a conventional film mammogram is used by the computer aided systems. The computer software then searches for abnormal areas of mass, density or calcification that may indicate the presence of cancer. It highlights the abnormal areas on the images, alerting the radiologists to the need of further analysis. A special mammography machine is used for the screening of breasts. The machine comprises of an x-ray tube connected to a breasts support which houses the film cassette or imaging device on a C shaped arm, with moveable compression paddle between the two. There are few standard functional requirements for the mammography machine in order to produce a good quality image. The high voltage generator of mammography machine shall supply a near direct current high voltage with ripple less than 5 percent. Most modern mammography machines have a automatic selection for kilo voltage (kVp) output in order to optimize contrast. The generator produces a constant potential and the high voltage applied to the tube must be from 22 to 35kVp in increments of 1kVp. The focal spot size of mammography machine should be as small as possible to ensure adequate resolution. A focal spot size of 0.3mm is recommendable for general mammography and 0.1mm (small focus) for magnification views. The tube current o f mammography machine should be set as high as possible in order to minimize exposure time and thus reducing the likelihood of motion artifact. A moving grid with grid factor of less than 2.5 at 30 kVp is essential to ensure optimum image quality. An automatic exposure control (AEC) is important in mammography machine. This is due to the wide variation in breasts sizes and compositions. There is little scope for mAs selection errors as there is a need for high radiographic contrast and consequently the system has low latitude. As for image recording material, most of the mammography facilities are still utilizing traditional cassettes, intensifying screens and single emulsion film with processing being taking place. Mammography usually uses cassette containing a single intensifying screen and the film which is usually green sensitive has a single emulsion layer. Both these equipment are essential to give optimum resolution. A mammography film requires high spatial resolution. It sho uld has enough speed to ensure that the dose is acceptable without being so fast that it causes visible quantum mottle and high contrast with enough latitude to show both dense glandular tissue and the skin edge. Quality control, assurance programs and strict processing parameters are vital to ensure the standard in film quality is not compromised. Any reduction in film quality may lead to misinterpretation of image and incorrect diagnosis. In the modern days, digital mammography is slowing making its way to the imaging field. This modern modality has some advantages over the conventional film mammography. The examination time and time between examining patients decreases as chemical processing and changeover of cassette is no longer necessary. Markers can be applied on image digitally. Images produced can also be manipulated. One of the major advantages of image manipulation is the ability for image magnification with significantly less unsharpness compared to those associated with macro or magnification images that are sometimes required to demonstrate suspicious areas already seen on mammograms. Unlike the conventional magnification views, digital magnification does not involve an additional exposure to radiation. Patients are required to do some preparations prior to a mammography examination. Fasting or observation in particular dietetic rules days before mammogram examination is not necessary. However, for women sensitive to caffeine, they shall refrain from taking caffeine containing products such as cola, chocolate and coffee two weeks before undergoing the test. This is because caffeine could make the breasts more tender which may affect the quality of radiograph. Menstrual cycle phase usually does not affect the outcome of the examination. However, it is also highly recommendable to schedule for mammogram one week following patients menstrual cycle. This is so as the breasts are less tender compared to that during pre-ovulatory and postovulatory period (half cycle) as well as during premenstrual period. It is also advisable for patients to wear two piece clothing on examination day to ease the undressing process for mammogram. Cosmetics, oils, creams, lotion and talc or deodorant must n ot be applied hours prior to test at the underarms and breasts areas. Failure in doing so may result in those appearing in mammogram as calcium spots. Patients are also encouraged to bring along all previous mammograms for comparison purposes by the radiologist. Most often, mammograms are done on older patients compared to younger patients. this is due to the breast tissue changes during life. The breast tissue density in younger women often makes mammogram rather difficult to interpret. However, as women age increases, some changes in the structure of breasts occurs as glandular and fibrous tissues reduce in size and this results in breasts tissues become more fatty. On the examination day, a simple interview with the patients is conducted before the examination takes place. They will be asked on any prior surgeries history, family or personal history of breasts cancer as well as hormone use. It is also the responsibility of the radiographer or technologist to enquire the patients last menstrual period as to determine whether the patient is pregnant. Pregnant patients are not recommendable for such examination. Upon completion of the short interview, patients are then ushered to change into hospital gown and remove all potential artifact before proceeding for the examination. When the examination takes place, the breast is compressed using compression paddle on the mammography unit. A parallel plate compression evens out the breast tissue. Compression of breast reduces the thickness of tissue that x-rays penetrate, decreases the amount of scattered radiation, and reduces the required radiation dose and holding the breast (remove movement unsharpness) still and thus improving the image quality. Both craniocaudal, CC view (head to foot) and mediolateral oblique, MLO (angled side view) of the breast are taken in screening mammography. Extra views such as geometrically magnified and spot-compressed views of particular area of concern may be taken in diagnostic mammography. While performing the craniocaudal (CC) view, the mammography unit is positioned with the breast support table (image receptor holder) horizontal and the height adjusted to slightly above the level of patients inframammary angle. The patient is then instructed to face the machine, standing w ith approximately 5-6cm back, feet facing the machine but body rotated 15-20Â ° away from the side under examination. This is so that the breast under examination is brought closer to the image receptor holder and aligned with the center of it. The patients arms hang loosely by her side and head is turned away from the side to be examined. The breast is then lifted gently up and away from the chest wall of patient. While supporting the breast, the height of the machine is adjusted so that the image receptor holder makes contact with the breast at the inframammary fold and the breast is approximately 90Â ° to the chest wall. The breast is then carefully placed in contact with the cassette. Hand is then slowly removed from the breast, whilst ensuring that no skin folds are created underneath the breast. Patients arm of the side under examination is then flexed at the elbow and the hand is placed on the patients lower abdomen or relaxed at the side of the trunk. This relaxes the pect oral muscle. Patients shoulder is gently pressed down to bring the outer quadrant of the breast into contact with the image receptor. Slight pressure is maintained at the patients back to ensure she does not inadvertently pull back from the unit and cause some tissue to be lost from the resultant image. Radiographers thumb is then placed n the medial aspect and middle finger on the superior aspect of the breast, gently pulling forward towards the nipple while the compression is applied slowly. Radiographers other hand is placed on the patients shoulder of the side being examined to ensure that it stays relaxed. The light beam diaphragm can be used during the application of compression. This is to ensure the nipple is in profile, all breast is included in the main beam, both medial and lateral margins are included, no skin folds and an adequate breast compression. A CC marker with left or right identifier is positioned on the axillary edge of the cassette, within the primary beam. Pa tient is strongly advised not to move and the projection is done quickly after that. The same CC procedure is performed on both left and right breast. The CC view with the same procedure is performed on patients both breasts. Besides the CC view, a mediolateral oblique (MLO) view of patients both breasts is also taken for screening mammogram. The positioning of patients for left breast MLO view is to have patient facing the mammography unit with feet pointing towards it. From the position used for CC projection, the unit is rotated through 45Â ° with the x-ray tube on patients right and the beam angled caudally. The height is adjusted to bring the lower border of cassette 2.5cm below the inferior portion of the left breast. It may be necessary to further adjust the height during patient positioning. The lateral edge of the left of the thorax is in line with the image receptor holder so that the left breast also lies next to it. The radiographer then stands behind and slightly to the right of patient. Patient is then asked to raise her left arm and chin. The raising of chin may prevent the superimposition of the mandible over the breast. Patients left breast is then held with right hand and patient is kep t in position by holding on to the right shoulder. Patient who is advised to lean forward into machine with feet still facing forward is asked to lean slightly laterally. The left axilla of patient should lie over the corner of image receptor that is nearest to chest wall. Radiographer then proceeds to life the posterior skin edge of the left axilla to prevent skin folds from occurring. Patients left arm is then pulled across and behind the image receptor holder. Patients elbow is also flexed so that the forearm can be placed on the unit for support and elbow is positioned so that it hangs down comfortably behind the holder. The humeral head is gently pushed forward and the corner of image receptor lies in the axilla, anterior to posterior fold. While the patient maintains the position, radiographer double check to ensure there is no skin fold in the axilla or under the lateral aspect of the breast and to check for and remove any creases at the inframammary angle. The breast is then lifted up and away from the chest wall while holding the patients left shoulder. The breast is then placed on the image receptor and compression is applied. Projection on the left breast is then taken. The same MLO view projection is then repeated vice versa on the right breast of patient. Upon completion of the examination, patient is advised to change back to her clothes. Patient is then escorted out and at the same time patient is informed on her next appointment for the review of results with the radiologist. Any discussion on the results with patient prior to the review of radiologist is prohibited. Mammography has been long known to be an effective modality for breast screening. Such examination improves physicians ability to detect small tumors and early treatment can be performed to reduce mortality rate. Mammogram is also the only proven method to reliably detect tumors as well as all types of breast cancer, including invasive ductal and invasive lobular cancer. Radiation used in mammography examination is of low dosage and usually has no side effects towards patient. Moreover, radiation does not remain in patients body after the examination. Despite its benefits in the purpose of screening and diagnostic, mammography poses certain risks towards its patients. There is a slight chance of cancer from excessive exposure to radiation. The effective radiation dose for this procedure varies depending on the thickness of tissue. However, radiographers are trained to use the lowest radiation dose possible for radiation protection purposes while producing the best images for evaluati on. False positive mammogram is also one of the risks in performing mammogram. Five percent to 15 percent of screening mammograms need more testing such as additional view for mammograms or ultrasound to further determine suspected abnormality. Most of the further tests turn out to be normal. However if there is an abnormal finding, biopsy may be performed on the patient to determine whether the tumor is benign or malignant. Women above the age of 40 are normally advised for a mammogram annually as they pose a higher risk of being diagnose with breast cancer. However, an ultrasound is more preferably performed on patients below the age of 40 as their breasts tissue is denser. Last but not least, women of all age should go for routine breast check up regularly for early detection on any breast abnormalities. Above diagram shows a conventional cassette film mammogram machine. Above diagram shows a Craniocaudal (CC) mammography view in progress. Above diagram shows a Mediolateral Oblique (MLO) view in progress. Above diagram shows a normal (left) mammography image compared to cancerous (right) mammography image.

Freud Meets World Essay -- essays research papers

Sigmund Freud, physiologist, medical doctor, psychologist, and father of psychoanalysis, is recognized as one of the most influential thinkers of the twentieth century. Freud articulated the concepts of the unconscious, of infantile sexuality, and of repression. He proposed a tripartite account of the structure of the mind, as part of a radically new therapeutic reference for the understanding of human psychological development, and the treatment of abnormal mental conditions. Freud is also known as the â€Å"Father of Psychoanalysis.† Psychoanalysis refers to the method of investigating unconscious mental processes, and is also a form of psychotherapy. Not regarding the multiple manifestations of psychoanalysis as it exists today, it can, in almost all respects, be traced directly back to Freud’s original work (Brome 12). Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856, at Freiberg in Moravia, which is now a part of Czechoslovakia. He was born into a family full of enough complexity and confusion to give him significant material for his ruminations on the individual mind and its connections with others. His mother, Amalia, an assertive, good-looking woman, was twenty years younger than her husband Jacob. Freud’s father was Jewish, and was said to be a wool merchant. His siblings were two half-brothers, who were already grown-up, which provided a constant reminder of the oddity of his position. His own confusions, hatreds, loves, and desires from this period appear to have had significant impact on his later work on development. The decline of the textile market, and an increase of anti-Semitism in the city, forced his family to relocate to Vienna, the capitol of Austria when he was four. While in Vienna, Freud developed a liking for the medical field, especially the nervous system, and the works of the mind. He graduated from the medical school of the University of Vienna in 1881. Freud later decided to specialize in neurology, the study Kevin Mechtley 2 and treatment of disorders of the nervous system (Brill V). He left the University, secretly engaged, and found a job at the Vienna Hospital in hopes of earning enough money to get married. While at the hospital, he concentrated on the study of cerebral anatomy and also conducted research on the possible clinical uses of cocaine. In September 1886 he married Martha Bernays after a... ...He is at once the principal writer and the principal thinker of our century. If one seeks the strongest authors in the West in our time, most readers would agree upon the crucial figures; Proust, Joyce, Kafka, Yeats, Mann, Lawrence, Eliot, Rilke, Faulkner, Valery, Stevens, Montale, Beckett certainly would be among them. The essential thinkers might constitute a shorter and more controversial canon, whether of scientists or philosophers, and I will not venture to list them here. Freud is unique in that he would dominate the second group and successfully challenge even Proust, Joyce, and Kafka in the first. Nor can one match him with any of the religious figures or scholars of the century. His only rivals indeed are Plato, Montaigne, Shakespeare, or even the anonymous primal narrator of Genesis, Exodus and Numbers, called the â€Å"J† writer of Yahwist in biblical scholarship. Sigmund Freud is generally recognized as one of the most influential and authoritative thinkers of the twentieth century. Even today, a century after Freud lived, all of his theories are debated and discussed, and some are still practiced in the psychotherapy field.

Internal Control

What is internal control and why is it important The American Institute of Accountants first defined the term internal control in 1949, followed by further clarifications in 1958 and 1972. In 1977 publicly held companies came under legislation to adequately implement controls to protect their financial information. A report by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations in 1992 and the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 are more recent documents defining internal controls. ( Bishop, 1991,p. 117-123; Colbert and Bowen, 1996, 26-35)This essay will describe and explain the internal control and discuss why is it important.There are five points about the importance of internal control, which respectively are Control Environment, Risk Assessment, Control Activities, Communication and Information and Monitoring. There are two definitions about internal control . Frist, internal control the integration of the activities, plans, attitudes, policies, and efforts of the employees of a department working together to provide reasonable assurance that the department will achieve its mission. More simply, internal control is what a department does to see that the things they want to happen will happen and the evidences they don’t want to happen would not happen. Manea Birza,2012,p. 75)Second, the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (COSO)(2005) has claimed that internal control is process, effected by an entity’s board of directors, management and other personnel ,designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives in the following thing: effectiveness and efficiency of operations and reliability of financial reporting. One of important reason of why is it significant that is control environment.The control environment, sometimes referred to as â€Å"tone at the top†, is the foundation for all other components of internal control. The control environment is influenced by management’s philosophy, opera ting style, integrity, ethical values, and commitment to competence. If this foundation is strong, if the control environment is positive, the overall system of internal control will be more effective, because the control environment component is the foundation upon which all other components of internal control are based, and it sets the tone of an organization.A small business can have unique advantages in establishing a strong control environment. Employees in many smaller businesses interact more closely with top management and are directly influenced by management actions. Through day-to-day practices and actions, management can effectively reinforce the company’s fundamental values and directives. The close working relationship also enables senior management to quickly recognize when employee’s actions need modification. (Ratcliffe, 2005,p209 and Chunk landes,2009,p56) Two of important reason of why internal control is important that is risk assessment.Risk asses sment is the identification, analysis, and management of risks relevant to the achievement of the department’s goals and objectives. Risks include internal and external events or events that may occur and adversely affect oppositions. Once risks are identified, management should consider their impact or significance, the probability of their occurrence, and how to manage them. ( Spencer Pickett and Pickett , 2010)Risk assessment, as it relates to the objective of reliable financial reporting, involve identification and analysis of the risks of material misstatement .Establishment of financial reporting objectives articulated by a assessment process. Risk assessment in small businesses can be relatively efficient , often because in-depth knowledge of the company’s operations enables the owner and management to have first-hand information of where risk exist. In carrying out their normal responsibilities, including obtaining information gained from employees, customers, supplier, and others, these managers identify risks inherent in business processes. ( Ratcliffe, 2005)In this way ,the risk assessment is quiet significant for company or enterprise.Three of important reason of why internal control is important that is control activities. Internal control activities are tools – policies, procedures, techniques, and mechanisms – that help ensure management’s directives are carried out. Control activities help identify, prevent or reduce the risks that can impede accomplishment of the department's objectives. Control activities occur throughout the department, at all levels and in all functions; they include activities such as approvals, authorizations, verifications, reconciliations, documentation, separation of duties, and safeguarding of assets. Root,1998) Many smaller companies use certain compensating controls to achieve the objectives, when resource constraints compromise the ability to segregate duties. They help ensure tha t necessary actions are taken to address risks to a achievement of the entity’s objectives. Control activities occur throughout the organization at all levels and in all functions. (Ratcliffe, 2005 and Chuck Landes, 2009)Control activities are one of most important in internal control.Four of important reason of why internal control is important that is Communication and Information. Information systems identify, capture, and distribute information supporting the achievement of financial reporting objectives. Information systems is small businesses are likely to less formal than in large ones, but their role is just as significant. (Chuck Landes, 2009) For a department to run and control its operations, it must have relevant, valid, reliable, and timely communications relating to internal and external events.Managers must be able to secure reliable information to make informed business decisions, understand their risks, and communicate policies and other important information to those who need it. (Rezaee, 2002)so, it is also integrant for internal control. Finally, monitoring is most significant for internal control’s reason why is it important. The department’s internal control system needs to be monitored to assess whether controls are effective and operating as intended.Monitoring occurs through routine managerial activities such as supervision, reconciliations, checklists, comparisons, performance evaluations, and status reports; monitoring may also occur through separate internal evaluations example internal audits/reviews or from use of external sources example comparison to peer groups or industry standards, surveys. Deficiencies found during monitoring need to be reported to those responsible for the function, with serious deficiencies being reported to top management. (Rezaee, 2002, p. 07) Committee Of Sponsoring Organizations (COSO) of the Treadway Commission have suggested that senior executives have long sought ways to better control the enterprises they run. Internal controls are put in place to keep the company on course toward profitability objects and achievement of its task, and to least loss. (Spencer Pickett, 2005) It reveals the important of monitoring. In conclusion, there are many beneficial point to prove internal control is important because Pickett (2010) consider that the overall purpose of internal control is to help a department achieve its mission and reach certain goals and objectives.An effective internal control system helps a department to promote orderly, economical, efficient and effective operations and produce quality products and services consistent with the department’s mission and safeguard resources against loss due to waste, abuse, mismanagement, errors and fraud and promote adherence to statutes, regulations, bulletins and procedures and develop and maintain reliable financial and management data, and accurately report that data in a timely manner.Therefore, in many countries, internal control is very popular in different company or different government; however, it is not available in all of situations, because whether an organization achieves operational and strategic objectives may depend on factors outside the company, such as competition or technological innovation. These factors are outside the scope of internal control; therefore, effective internal control provides only timely information or feedback on progress towards the achievement of operational and strategic objectives, but cannot guarantee their achievement. ( Rezaee,2002)

The Early Days of Ford Motor Essay Example

The Early Days of Ford Motor Essay Example The Early Days of Ford Motor Essay The Early Days of Ford Motor Essay For years, very few believed that a horse-less carriage would ever exist. Henry Ford was determined to prove them wrong.The crazy loon or the eccentric inventor as they called Ford, started the industrial revolution which changed daily life for the entire world (Sinclair 4). Ford built hisfirst plant in Detroit, Michigan on Mack Ave. with the help of investors that backed up his beliefs in making the world mobile.During thefirst years of Ford Motor Company, Mr. Ford took great care and interest in his employees.As years went on, the demand for automobiles increased.With demand for cars in the rise, the company found that they needed to have the employees work harder and faster to produce more cars.In order to compensate his employees for this Mr. Ford began a Sociological Department within the Ford Motor Company.The purpose of that department was to determine if his workers qualified for the standard $5 a day plus a $0.26 per hour raise and a bonus every January. In order to qualify ing for the bonus, you had to be married, had a good home, stable family life amongst many other qualifications (Sinclair 30). This program worked out for some time but at the end of that era, working conditions were worse off then ever before. For decades, the Ford workers were mistreated. Conditions inside the Ford Motor Company are completely different now than it was sixty years ago. The establishment of unions helped to better the life of all automobile workers. Upton Sinclair, the author of The Flivver King: A Story of Ford America , writes an extremely interesting historical novel about the start of the Ford Automobile Company. The story is told from the perspective of Abner Shutt, one of Fordsfirst employees. Abner lives in the times where Henry Ford began his auto design in the early 1900s till the mid 30s when Ford was known as the richest man in the world.

women in the work place essays

women in the work place essays The past decades there has been a dramatic increase of women participating in the labor force from countries all over the World including Canada. In 1950, one Canadian worker in five was a woman. By 1980 this percentage had doubled, and women are expected to make up more than 44 percent of the labor force by the end of this century. The increase in female participation started occurring during the 1970's. This increase also caused the largest baby boom that the Canadian female labor force had ever witnessed. In North America it is common for women to have part-time or summer jobs, and the participation rate of teenage girls is high. It is also mostly high throughout the world in places as United Kingdom because of the fewer women going to school. But in places like France, Italy, and Japan the female participation rate is very low. In most of the countries the labour force is most participated in the age groups between 20 and 24. The labor force of mature women is very high in Sweden, because of the encouraged day care facilities, which also provides the females with legislation that provides them with excellent benefits. In Japan there is a drop in female economic activity, the reason why is it affects their marriage and the care of their only child. An observation of labor force participation rates in Canada show that female rates rose a lot between 1971 and 1981, while the male rate rose unnoticeably. The increase in the female participation rate was found in all age groups except in older women. For women aged 15 to 19 the rate was as almost as high as the men. But the largest increase was in the age group of 25-44 years old, where the rate rose almost 50 percent. This meant that the participation rates of the females had become more alike with the men. Family status also influenced the female participatio ...

Sharpeville Massacre Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Sharpeville Massacre - Essay Example Although this event in itself acted as a turning point in the struggle of black South Africans towards restoring dignity, but there were certain events which happened before Sharpeville massacre that caused widespread frustration and resentment in the black African community. This antipathy, hatred, bitterness, resentment, frustration and loss of self-determination mustered up slowly and gradually and was the cause that strengthened the will and determination of black Africans and helped them to fight tirelessly after the incident of Sharpeville, this incident in a way helped them to open up and made them realize that this cannot go on forever. It is a natural instinct that when all is lost, courage is regained. To what went on in South Africa, Jawaharlal Nehru,the Indianprime minister commented in his speech to Lok-Sabha that "There is the racial policy of the Union of South Africa, which is in no sense different from the racial policy of Hitler, except that they have not gone to those extremes that Hitler went to." In my view the events that happened before Sharpeville massacre were the ones which caused Sharpeville incident to act as a turning point of South African history, although there were many efforts made after the incident which eventually led to liberation, but it were the events of the past which gave them the drive to carry on with their effort and face obstacles head on. In this light, we'll look at two incidents or decisions of the past which hold significance importance and are a key factor in massacre that happened on 1960. Pass laws The story starts way back in 1760, when the first pass laws in South Africa was introduced in an attempt to exclude all natives from the Cape Colony. Later on, the Native Urban Areas Act 1923 deemed urban areas in South Africa as white and forced all black African men in cities and towns to carry permits called passes. The black South Africans were required to carry these passbooks ("dom pas", meaning dumb pass) all the time whenever they went outside their designated areas or compounds as a permit or a proof that they were authorized to move or live in white South Africa. Anyone found without a pass would be arrested immediately and sent to a rural area. These laws were designed to segregate the population among black and white people and severely limit the movements of the non-white populace in urban areas. Another one of its clause stated that black Africans could not hold a higher business position within a company than the lowest white employee. This legislation was one of the dominant features of the country's apartheid system, which we will discuss shortly. These laws also affected other non-Caucasian populace like Indian people who were also barred from moving in the white South Africa. It is obvious that these discriminatory regulations were bound to spark outrage from the black population, consequence to which many demonstrations, acts of passive resistance, and uprisings were directed at the pass system. In 1930, for example, the Communist Party organized a mass burning of passes on Dingane's Day, a day celebrated in honour of the Zulu chief Dingane. A major anti-pass campaign was mounted in 1944 also.

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Rhetorical Analysis - Essay Example The emaciated child from the horn of Africa on United Nation High Commission for Refugees is no exception is a good example of rhetorically driven advert. The advert is articulately structured to appeal to the audience for financial support. It is aimed at ensuring people contribute towards alleviation of poverty in the horn of Africa. The image of emaciated child is meant to have a certain appeal to the audience. The argument used is empathetic. The image used has a strong urge to the audience. The image shows of situation in the horn of Africa. It appeals to the audience to contribute whatever they have to save children who are usually vulnerable to drought situation. This image manages to convince the whole world on food situation in horn of Africa. The image used captures the audience interest and they are prompted to read the text. The strategy used is affective as seen from the contribution of various nations. In conclusion, rhetorical analysis when used on advertisement can he lp in identifying the strategy used by the author. Rhetorical analysis is profoundly used in literature. It is generally used to analyze the author intention to a particular audience. Mostly the content is used to teach a particular group of audience on particular values in a certain society. In order to understand the intention of a particular author it is good to have a detailed account of the information used in the story line. This paper seeks to discuss use of rhetorical analysis in literature. An example is children literature. Children literature is aimed at teaching and persuading them on particular issues such as basics of life. Most of the children literatures are environmentally focused. The real authors of children’s books are highly valued in the society and have higher level of ethics. The author is expected to provide a moral and ethical story line and the content is supposed to invoke a positive mentality. Generally, animals are used in the story line